Promoting Cultural Heritage to Strengthen Syrian National Identity and Overcome Ethnic and Religious Fragmentation

[Greta Ramelli is a legal officer at the Public International Law and Policy Group and a legal advisor at Hostage Italia Onlus.

Dr Mohammed Alkhalid is a Post-Doctoral Fellow at Sapienza University of Rome.]

Introduction 

The capture of Damascus by HTS on December 8, 2024, occurred after a long and devastating civil war that began with protests against the Assad regime in 2011 and resulted in the deaths of over 600,000 people and millions of refugees and internally displaced persons.

While millions of Syrians contributed to the fall of the Assad regime with decades of suffering and sacrifice, militarily speaking, the armed group Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) played a major role in overthrowing the regime and taking control of the country. Despite its rebranding and internal changes, several countries and international organizations have designated HTS as a terrorist group, mostly for its former ties to Al-Qaida. HTS’s designation as a jihadist, Sunni Islamist, and terrorist group, coupled with its controversial past, calls into question how other ethnic and religious groups will be treated under its government. 

Since the anti-regime coalition, led by HTS, seized control of the government, there have been legitimate concerns that minorities may be at risk of violence, persecution, and repression, in particular the Alawi minority, which is closely tied to the Assad regime. While HTS has sent encouraging signals to the world, such as recognizing Christians as equal citizens and protecting the Aleppo Museum and key historical monuments, the recent scale of violence in coastal regions primarily inhabited by Alawites has reignited concerns about sectarianism. A Reuters investigation published in late June concluded that nearly 1,500 Alawites were killed in the massacres and that at least a dozen factions now under the government’s command participated in the massacres. Compounding these fears, in July 2025, the Druze-majority province of Suweida erupted into devastating sectarian conflict. Clashes between Sunni Bedouin tribes and Druze armed groups led to hundreds of deaths and shocking reports of arbitrary killings, looting, house burnings, and public humiliation targeting Druze and Bedouin civilians.

Like in many societies, for much of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, the average Syrian citizen has generally lived peacefully alongside neighbors of different religions and ethnicities, including Sunni Muslims, Alawites, Christians, Druze, Kurds, Armenians, and others. Mixed neighborhoods, interfaith friendships, and shared public life were historically common, especially in urban areas. Sectarian and ethnic divisions certainly existed, but they did not inherently drive conflict or hatred. There was no deep-rooted historical animosity between these groups akin to what is sometimes found in other deeply divided societies. Rather, the tension that did exist was often the result of structural inequalities, authoritarian governance, and state manipulation—not ancient hatreds.

Although the Ba’athist regime under Hafez and Bashar al-Assad presented itself as a guardian of minority rights, its consolidation of power was rooted in sectarian patronage, most notably through the advancement of the Alawite minority within Syria’s military and intelligence institutions. This approach sowed long-term mistrust and division, fracturing national identity along ethnic and religious lines. The last 13 years of revolution and civil war, along with atrocities committed by both the regime and non-state armed groups, have deepened sectarian divisions and exposed the fragile nature of Syrian national identity.

In this article, the authors highlight the potential of cultural heritage protection and promotion to strengthen Syrian national identity and overcome divisive narratives that contribute to violence and repression. This approach emphasizes the unifying power of cultural heritage in fostering a shared sense of belonging, which can help mitigate divisions and reduce the risk of violence or repression. The term cultural heritage here is interpreted broadly to include both tangible (physical objects, monuments, buildings, artwork, archaeological sites, and landscapes that have cultural, historical, or artistic significance) and intangible forms (practices, traditions, rituals, performances, languages, and skills that are important to a community’s identity).

The Concept of Cultural Heritage under the Assad Regime and During the War

Under the Assad regime, the concept of cultural heritage (التراث الثقافي) was widely politicized and used as a tool for the regime’s ideological control. The Assad regime often used Syria’s cultural heritage to promote its own image and reinforce the legitimacy of the ruling family, portraying it as the guardian of Syria’s long history and cultural legacy. Cultural heritage was frequently appropriated to give the appearance of continuity, linking the Assad family to the broader historical and cultural narrative of Syria. This manipulation was most apparent in state-sponsored projects, such as the construction of museums, libraries, and monuments, where these cultural works were frequently framed as contributions of the “wise leadership,” meaning the Assad family. National libraries, high institutes, and theaters in Syrian cities were frequently named after the Assad family – for example, the Assad Library in Damascus, which hosted a large collection of manuscripts – not only to consolidate their image but also to link cultural heritage directly with the family’s rule. 

The Assad regime often used restoration projects and the construction of public monuments to legitimize its rule and showcase the strength and endurance of the regime. The regime selectively restored historical sites that could be used for political purposes. For example, the ancient city of Palmyra, which had significant cultural and historical value, was at times used to emphasize the regime’s ability to preserve Syria’s heritage, despite the actual challenges of cultural preservation and the impact of war. However, during the war, the regime’s army has often bombed and looted museums and archaeological sites. 

School curricula under the Assad regime generally did not emphasize or celebrate Syria’s cultural heritage comprehensively. Textbooks rarely discussed the richness and diversity of Syrian heritage, and concepts of shared cultural identity or heritage were not part of the national educational framework. This lack of focus on shared cultural heritage in education had long-term implications, as it failed to cultivate a national understanding of heritage that transcended sectarian or ethnic divisions. Instead, the education system focused more on fostering loyalty to the state and the ruling family rather than encouraging critical thinking or appreciation for Syria’s multicultural history.

Overall, Assad’s politicization of the concept of cultural heritage led to a fragmented understanding of Syria’s culture and history. Cultural heritage became less about shared national identity and more about reinforcing the regime’s narrative and solidifying its power. The war has further revealed the fragility of state-controlled heritage narratives, as the destruction of cultural landmarks has sparked a renewed focus on the need to redefine and reclaim cultural heritage as part of a shared national identity, rather than something tied to a specific political agenda.

During the Syrian Revolution, and then war, systematic destruction and looting of cultural heritage took place. The destruction and looting were carried out by two main actors: residents engaged in illegal excavations driven by financial need, and extremist groups including Daesh, whose destruction of cultural heritage served as a propaganda tool. The former group—the local actors—represents a significant and often overlooked dimension of this crisis, one that reflects the failure of the state and the broader structural challenges that need to be addressed in rebuilding Syria’s national identity post-conflict. 

The absence of effective cultural policies, alongside the collapse of the rule of law, created a vacuum in which illegal excavations flourished. Locals who participated in illegal excavations and looting were primarily motivated by economic hardship, rather than ideological or political goals. These individuals did not view their actions as inherently destructive but rather as a survival mechanism. In many cases, these acts of looting were seen as a way to claim something from the state, specifically, resources or wealth, since the state had failed to meet basic needs like food, shelter, security, and employment opportunities during the war.

The second actor is Daesh and other like-minded groups, which conducted systematic destruction and looting of heritage monuments. The acts of cultural terrorism perpetrated by Daesh were not random or driven solely by ideological extremism; they were part of a deliberate strategy to terrorize populations, assert control, and spread propaganda. Cultural heritage destruction was strategically calculated to send a message both to Daesh followers and to the wider world. The goal was to use cultural iconoclasm as a tool for asserting their vision of the world and their ideology of destruction. By targeting symbols of history, culture, and religion, they aimed to create a sense of totalitarian control and to wipe out cultural symbols that did not align with their ideology.

The ancient city of Palmyra in Syria was one of the most tragic symbols of Daesh’s cultural terrorism. Palmyra, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was home to some of the world’s most important Roman-era ruins, including the Temple of Bel and the Arch of Triumph. Daesh destroyed these monuments not only for their symbolic value but also to erase the cultural legacy of Syria and the wider region.

Similarly, Daesh’s destruction of the Assyrian palace in Nimrud (Iraq) was another major act of cultural destruction. The Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, which stood as a testament to the ancient Assyrian Empire, was blown up in 2015. This was not only a symbolic act of erasing the Assyrian legacy, but also an attack on the history and identity of the broader Mesopotamian region. Daesh also targeted Yazidi religious sites, including temples and shrines, as part of their genocidal campaign against the Yazidi people. These acts were meant not only to destroy the physical sites but also to dismantle the spiritual identity of the Yazidis: their campaign aimed to wipe out any trace of Yazidi culture and religion. The recent developments in Syria provide a significant opportunity to develop a new state approach to cultural heritage protection that fosters national unity and cohesion among all Syrians.

Cultural Heritage Protection as a Post-Conflict Strategy to Promote Syrian National Identity

Heritage preservation plays a vital role in reinforcing national identity, and this process must remain non-political and inclusive. Protecting cultural heritage as a symbol of Syrian national identity, and not a particular actor, as an ethnic or religious group, can help strengthen Syrian identity, transcending divisive ideologies and beliefs, while also safeguarding everyone’s cultural, religious, and ethnic affiliations. This requires the development and implementation of state policies that aim to protect and preserve Syria’s diverse cultural assets, promote a shared sense of national identity, and ensure the inclusion of all communities, regardless of their ethnic, religious, or cultural background. Such policies should foster dialogue, reconciliation, and respect for Syria’s rich heritage while empowering local communities to participate in the preservation and promotion of their cultural heritage. In developing these policies, the following recommendations may be taken into account.

 Engage Local Communities

Many scholars and heritage specialists have emphasized the importance of involving local communities in post-conflict heritage reconstruction to make heritage preservation more meaningful to them. Such engagement cannot be superficial and must be supported by comprehensive state policies that integrate heritage preservation into broader social and economic frameworks addressing both social and economic needs. Local communities are more likely to engage with and protect heritage sites if they understand their cultural, historical, and economic value. To this aim, the state may consider implementing nationwide awareness campaigns that highlight the significance of Syria’s cultural heritage, both for national identity and economic development. This could involve community workshops, local heritage days, and educational materials that focus on the role of cultural heritage in fostering a shared national identity and economic prosperity (e.g., through tourism, crafts, and other heritage-related industries). 

Additionally, the state may consider allocating a percentage of revenue generated from cultural heritage sites (tourism fees, merchandise sales, and restoration grants) directly back to the local communities. This can be done by creating heritage funds or programs designed to reinvest profits into local infrastructure, employment, and education. Policies should be designed to create jobs directly linked to heritage conservation, such as restoration workers, museum guides, tourism operators, and artisans creating locally produced goods inspired by cultural heritage. By ensuring that local communities obtain financial benefits from preserving their heritage, such as through job creation, entrepreneurial opportunities, and community development projects, the state can foster a sense of ownership over heritage preservation.

The state should also consider decentralizing the management of cultural heritage, empowering local authorities and community organizations to take part in the planning, protection, and promotion of archaeological sites and monuments. This could involve creating local heritage committees or community heritage trusts that manage the day-to-day operations of heritage sites and ensure that local interests are prioritized. Additionally, local communities should be involved in decision-making processes related to the use of heritage sites, including their access to cultural tourism or related economic activities. When local authorities and communities are empowered to manage and protect cultural sites, they are more likely to develop sustainable and inclusive approaches that respect cultural diversity while promoting national unity. Strong policies on the engagement of the local population in the protection and management of their archaeological sites and monuments could contribute to spreading the universal concept of cultural heritage among local communities, making new generations aware and proud of Syrian cultural identity and overcoming divergences. 

Educational Reform 

Policies for reconstructing a tolerant and homogeneous society should begin by promoting the diverse and inclusive history of the country. The universal significance of cultural heritage as human heritage should be emphasized in school curricula from the early stages of education. Modern methods should be used to illustrate the rich history of past civilizations that flourished in Syria and contributed to the development of human civilization through significant discoveries in language, architecture, agriculture, and the foundational formation of the state. Pre-classic ancient texts, along with statues of gods and goddesses, Roman, Byzantine, Christian, and Islamic arts produced by different civilizations, should be viewed as symbols of Syria’s exceptional past and collective heritage. This approach places the responsibility to protect Syrian cultural heritage on everyone, regardless of ethnic or religious affiliations. 

Education can play a powerful role in fostering a collective understanding of Syria’s cultural diversity and historical depth, helping to counteract sectarianism and division. Teaching young Syrians about their shared cultural past will promote a sense of belonging and a national identity that transcends ethnic and religious divides. By reframing cultural heritage as a unifying force, rather than a tool for ideological manipulation, educational programs can instill pride in Syria’s history and foster a stronger sense of collective national identity. 

Integrate Cultural Heritage Protection into Transitional Justice 

The process of transitional justice should not overlook cultural needs; instead, cultural heritage protection shall be viewed as a key component of transitional justice and an essential requirement for peace and reconciliation among Syrians. Syria’s future Constitution should reinforce the universal nature of cultural heritage, highlighting that Syria’s cultural sites form part of human heritage and framing cultural destruction as an offense against the entire Syrian population. More efforts shall also be undertaken to enforce laws that criminalize the deliberate destruction, looting, and trafficking of cultural heritage, ensuring that such crimes are prosecuted at both national and international levels. This could be accompanied by the establishment of specialized courts or committees within Syria’s justice system that focus on accountability for cultural heritage crimes, alongside traditional war crimes. These courts could work in tandem with international bodies, like the International Criminal Court or UNESCO, to ensure that accountability is achieved at all levels. This reinforces the message that an attack on these sites is an attack on every Syrian and humanity as a whole, also acting as a deterrent for future attempts to use heritage as a tool of war. The transitional justice process shall also consider addressing cultural restitution, including the return of looted artifacts, the restoration of destroyed heritage sites, and the promotion of national narratives that emphasize Syria’s shared heritage and multicultural identity. 

Finally, it is important to ensure that the transitional justice process is led by highly qualified and neutral national personnel with extensive experience in cultural policy formulation, heritage, and state enterprise management. These individuals should be free from political biases and external influences, particularly those from foreign governments or agencies, and should be capable of crafting strategies that prioritize local needs and national unity. By selecting experienced national experts, Syria can ensure that policies are not only aligned with local realities but also reflect the cultural diversity and historical significance of its heritage. This approach can help avoid the imposition of external political agendas or the reinforcement of pre-conceived foreign policies that might be disconnected from the local context. 

Conclusion

Given the complex realities faced by Syrians, both within the country and in the diaspora, any strategy for reconciliation and recovery must prioritize what unites the people, rather than what divides them. Cultural heritage, as both a tangible and intangible expression of Syria’s diverse communities, has the potential to foster unity and a shared sense of belonging across ethnic, religious, and regional divides. The protection of cultural heritage, including all the various cultural traditions, popular costumes, forms of art, religious practices, historic monuments, and archaeological remains, is essential for building a strong national identity, which should not only be a post-conflict strategy but the very foundation of the new Syrian national state. The involvement of local communities, the promotion of inclusive cultural policies, and the recognition of cultural heritage as a collective national asset will be crucial in mitigating divisions and promoting peace in the new Syria. This can pave the way for a more cohesive and resilient society that transcends sectarian and political divisions. The chant ‘One, one, one, the Syrian people are one’ has echoed through the streets since the 2011 uprising, and it continues to be sung during celebrations marking the fall of the Assad regime. Now and more than any time, Syrians, representing all components of society, should engage in dialogue about the role of cultural heritage reconciliation and Syrian identity reconstruction. 

Photo attribution: “Replica of the entrance of the palace of Aramean king Kapara at the National Museum of Aleppo” by Xvlun~commonswiki (presumed) is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.5