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[Dr Sergey Sayapin is Professor of Law at KIMEP University (Almaty, Kazakhstan) and Distinguished Visiting Global Scholar at the NUS Centre for International Law (2025)] The discussion in Part I of this blog post has examined how contemporary economic interdependence generates structural vulnerabilities within financial systems, sovereign debt, and global production networks. Yet the significance of economic fragility extends well beyond these domains. The modern...

[Dr Sergey Sayapin is Professor of Law at KIMEP University (Almaty, Kazakhstan) and Distinguished Visiting Global Scholar at the NUS Centre for International Law (2025)] For much of the post-war period, international economic law was built around a promise of stability. The architects of the Bretton Woods order sought to prevent a recurrence of the economic catastrophes that had contributed to the Great Depression, nationalism, and...